Lesson questions: What is the essence of the problem of social progress? How can we explain the diversity of views on progress? What is the contradictory nature of social progress? What are the criteria for progress? What is the universal criterion of social progress? What are the reasons for the diversity of ways and forms of social development?
The inconsistency of progress: The progress of humanity does not look like an ascending straight line, but like a broken line, which reflects ups and downs. Progress in one area may be accompanied by regression in another. Progressive shifts in a particular area can have both positive and negative consequences for society. Accelerated progress often came at a high price when masses of people were sacrificed to progress
Criteria for progress: 1) A. Turgot, M. Condorcet and the enlighteners: development of reason, enlightenment 2) A. Saint-Simon: the state of public morality, the principle of fraternity 3) F. Schelling: legal criterion, gradual approach to a legal structure 4) D .Hegel: degree of consciousness of freedom 5) K.Marx: development of production and production relations
Modern criteria of social progress: Increased life expectancy Increased well-being of the population Degree of harmony between the interests of the individual and the state Degree of harmony between the interests of various groups and strata of society Reduction of the degree of tension between different groups of society
Pitirim Sorokin (): “... all criteria of progress, no matter how diverse they may be, one way or another imply and should include the principle of happiness.”
3. French enlighteners considered the following criteria for progress: a) the development of reason and morality; b) increasing complexity of legal institutions; c) development of productive forces; d) conquering nature. 4. Revolution is: a) rapid, qualitative changes in the life of society; b) slow, gradual development; c) state of stagnation; d) return to its original state.
5. Is the judgment correct? A. The progressive development of society is always an irreversible movement forward. B. Social progress is contradictory and does not exclude return movements and regression. a) only A is true; b) only B is true; c) A and B are correct; d) both are incorrect. 6. Are the following statements true? A. Progress is characterized by a transition from higher to lower. B. Progress is characterized by processes of degradation, a return to lower forms and structures, a) only A is true; b) only B is true; c) A and B are correct; d) both judgments are incorrect.
7. The criterion for the development of society is not: a) the level of development of science: b) the degree to which an individual satisfies his needs; c) religious preferences of society; d) the state of the economy. 8. The thinker who called the development of morality the main criterion of progress: a) F. Schelling; b) G. Hegel; c) A. Saint-Simon; d) C. Fourier.
9. Reform is a transformation: a) changing the political structure of society; b) eliminating old social structures; c) changing any aspect of public life; d) leading to regression of society. 10. A necessary condition for human self-realization is: a) freedom; b) technology; c) morality; d) culture.
11. A complete change in all aspects of social life, including the foundations of the existing system, is: a) reform; b) innovation; c) revolution; d) progress. 12. One of the first to substantiate the idea of social progress was: a) the ancient Greek poet Hesiod; b) French philosopher A. Turgot; c) German philosopher Hegel; d) founder of Marxism K. Marx.
Concept of social progress
1. Progress means:
a) decline of culture;
b) moving forward;
c) cyclical development;
d) state of stability.
2. He called the most ancient society the “Golden Age”:
a) Plato;
b) Aristotle;
c) Lucretius Carus;
d) Hesiod
3. French enlighteners included the following criteria for progress:
a) development of reason and morality;
b) increasing complexity of legal institutions;
c) development of productive forces;
d) conquering nature.
4. Revolution is:
a) rapid, qualitative changes in the life of society;
b) slow, gradual development;
c) state of stagnation;
d) return to its original state.
5. Is the judgment correct?
A. The progressive development of society is always an irreversible movement forward.
B. Social progress is contradictory and does not exclude return movements and regression.
a) only A is true;
b) only B is true;
c) A and B are correct;
d) both are incorrect.
6. K. Popper believed that:
A. The historical process is progressive.
B. Progress is possible only for the individual.
a) only A is true;
b) only B is true;
c) both are incorrect;
d) A and B are correct.
7. The criterion for the development of society is not:
a) level of development of science:
b) the degree to which the individual satisfies his needs;
c) religious preferences of society;
d) the state of the economy.
8. The thinker who called the development of morality the main criterion of progress:
a) F. Schelling;
b) G. Hegel;
c) A. Saint-Simon;
d) C. Fourier.
9. Reform is transformation:
a) changing the political structure of society;
b) eliminating old social structures;
c) changing any aspect of social life;
d) leading to regression of society.
10. A necessary condition for a person’s self-realization is:
a) freedom;
b) technology;
c) morality;
d) culture.
11. A complete change in all aspects of social life, including the foundations of the existing system, is:
a) reform;
b) innovation;
c) revolution;
d) progress.
12. One of the first to substantiate the idea of social progress:
a) the ancient Greek poet Hesiod;
b) French philosopher A. Turgot;
c) German philosopher Hegel;
d) founder of Marxism K. Marx
13. Complete the definition: “Social progress is...”:
a) level (stage) of development of society, its culture;
b) the state of society as a whole at a certain stage of historical development;
c) the direction of social development, in which there is a progressive movement of society from simple and lower forms of social life to more complex and higher ones;
d) development and transition of society from higher to lower.
14. Saint-Simon believed that the highest achievement of social progress was society:
a) universal harmony;
b) feudal estate;
c) industrial-industrial;
d) societal.
15. The idea that society is developing along the path of regression was defended by:
a) ancient Greek philosopher Plato;
b) ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle;
c) ancient Greek poet Hesiod;
d) French educator J.A. Condorcet.
16. The highest criterion of social progress, according to K. Marx, is:
a) development of productive forces;
b) moral, spiritual and ethical state of society;
c) the degree of increase in human freedom;
d) development of the human mind.
17. Which of the following can be attributed to the causes of social changes:
a) external factors, influence of the natural environment;
b) contradictions arising between various social forces within society;
c) people’s desire for something new, more perfect;
d) all of the above.
18. What is the highest criterion of social progress?
a) interests in the development of productive forces;
b) moral, spiritual state of society;
c) a person, the quality of his life (that which contributes to the rise of humanism is progressive);
d) all of the above,
19. The ancient Greek philosophers Plato and Aristotle viewed history as:
a) cyclical circulation;
b) moving forward;
c) spiral movement;
d) development from complex to simple.
20. The criterion of social progress can be considered:
a) development of the mind;
b) development of production, science and technology;
c) development of morality;
d) all of the above.
21. Are the following statements true?
A. The development of science and technology is a universal criterion of social progress.
B. The development of humanism is a universal criterion of social progress.
a) only A is true;
b) only B is true;
c) A and B are correct;
d) both judgments are incorrect.
22. Are the following statements true?
A. Progress is characterized by a transition from higher to lower.
B. Progress is characterized by processes of degradation, a return to lower forms and structures.
a) only A is true;
b) only B is true;
c) A and B are correct;
d) both judgments are incorrect.
Resources used:
1. Sorokina E.N. Lesson developments in social studies. Profile level: 10th grade. - M.: VAKO, 2008. - 512 p. - http://books.tr200.ru/v.php?id=228758
Morality
1. Are the judgments correct?
A. The task of morality is to evaluate human actions from the point of view of good and evil.
B. The task of morality is to regulate human relations
a) only A is correct
b) only B is correct
c) both A and B are true
d) both judgments are incorrect
2. The “Golden Rule” of morality proclaims the principle:
a) act based not on personal interests, but on the interests of society
b) live - let others live
c) act towards others as they act towards you
d) don’t do to others what you don’t want to do to yourself
3. Both moral norms and legal norms
1) expressed in official form
2) are created by the state
3) regulate social relations
4) provided by the power of the state
4. Moral standards are
1) patterns of human behavior in society associated with the idea of good and evil
2) examples of ideas about the beautiful and the ugly in art
3) norms for violation of which a person is legally responsible
4) rules of behavior ensured by the power of state coercion
5. Relations between people from the standpoint of good and evil are regulated by:
1) right
2) morality
3) science
4) art
6. Are the following judgments about moral qualities true?
A. Conscience is the highest form of a person’s ability to moral self-control
B. Honor is an individual’s awareness of his social significance and recognition of this significance by society
1) only A is correct 3) both A and B are true
2) only B is true 4) both judgments are incorrect
7. Complete the phrase.
A set of norms that determine human behavior in society and are based on public opinion is: _____ morality __________________
8. Below is a list of terms. All of them, with the exception of one, are associated with the concept of “morality”.
Social norm, law, good and evil, spirituality, sanctions.
Find and identify a term related to another concept.
Answer: ________right_______________
9. Illustrate the unity of morality and law with three examples.
Answer: Examples illustrating the unity of morality and law include: In the system of social norms, morality and law are the most universal, extending to the entire society. The norms of morality and law have a single object of regulation – social relations. Both moral norms and legal norms come from society. The norms of morality and law emerged from the mononorms of primitive society. Moral and legal norms have a similar structure, etc.
1) activity and activity
2) profit and loss
3) wealth and poverty
4) honor and dignity
12. Moral norms as opposed to legal norms
1) regulated by the state
2) relate to relationships only with a certain group of people
3) regulate the behavior of all people
4) change due to a change of government
1) science
2) art
3) education
4) morality
1) art
2) morality
3) education
4) religion
15. Moral standards, as opposed to legal ones
1) regulate people’s behavior
3) are provided solely by the power of public opinion
4) mastered in the process of socialization
16. Social norms that reflect ideas about good and evil are
1) customs and traditions
2) moral standards
3) aesthetic standards
The disadvantages of the systemic-functional approach include the fact that individual factors in politics and personal conflicts, which are full of political life, remain unattended. The individual is considered only as a performer of functions, playing a certain role within the framework of a given system. In addition, supporters of this approach are criticized for excessive schematism and formalism in the study of complex political phenomena.
Along with the methods discussed above, many others are used in political science: logical (analysis and synthesis, induction and deduction, experiment, modeling, etc.), comparative, historical, methods of empirical research.
All this variety of approaches and methods in political science, with all their advantages and disadvantages, indicates that knowledge of the essence of political phenomena and processes cannot be one-dimensional and unilinear. It is necessary to take into account and use the entire wealth of accumulated methodology so that knowledge can give practical and targeted results.
The diversity of approaches is enhanced by the peculiarities of political science in different countries. At the same time, especially in recent decades, as a result of strengthening communication ties and computerization, there is mutual influence and mutual enrichment of the leading directions and methodologies of political science.
If in the first half of the 20th century. In the development of political science, the idea of improving research methods and methods prevailed; in the second half, development took the path of specifying research subjects. The common thread continues to be the strengthening of the pragmatic orientation of political science and the increasing role of its applied branches.
Question 5. Basic approaches to understanding politics
The concept of “politics” is not as simple as it seems. Its definition was first given in Ancient Greece, where the word polis meant the state, and the word politics meant state or public affairs, or more precisely, the art of government. This understanding of politics is still true today, but only in the most general terms.
At the modern scientific level, there are several main approaches to understanding politics.
First of all, this is a historically established idea of politics as the management of society; and since the state is most involved in this, politics with this approach is reduced to state activity.
There is a widespread view of politics as regulating relations between different social strata, ethnic groups, and state entities. Depending on the ideas about their interests in this option, politics is considered either as a struggle or cooperation between them, or as a complex interaction.
The understanding of politics as the struggle of various social groups and individuals for power is widely cultivated. A major theorist of political science, American scientist G. Lasswell (1902–1978) argued that politics is connected with the formation of power. The founder of political psychoanalysis, Lasswell, introduced the concept of “powerful personality.” Its internal spring is the desire to overcome the feeling of one’s own inferiority by acquiring power. The identification of the category of power as a determining one follows from the fact that the sphere of politics not only covers the state and the political system, but also goes beyond their limits. This is especially obvious in domestic politics, where informal, hidden mechanisms for achieving public goals are clearly revealed.
There is also a desire in modern science to reduce politics to the expression of economic or ideological interests. This approach comes from Marxism, from Lenin’s statement: “...Politics is the most concentrated expression of economics” (Lenin V.I. Poln. sobr. soch. T. 42. P. 216).
There is a definition of politics as characteristics of a course of action aimed at achieving certain goals in the relations of people with each other.
The variety of approaches to explaining the meaning of policy complicates the expression of its concept and clear formulation. Without pretending to be an exhaustive interpretation, let's say that politics is a sphere of activity between social groups whose goal is to conquer, retain and use state power to satisfy their interests and needs. This definition points to the state as the central element of politics, and the state itself is considered as the main category of the science of politics. This approach originates from Aristotle, who inextricably linked politics with the state. But it also corresponds to modern ideas, because it combines such key elements as activity - state - power.
Question 6: Policy structure
Modern politics has a complex structure. Its most important elements are the following.
Policy objects are a continuously changing set of social problems of this level, the solution of which requires political intervention, reforms and structural changes.
Subjects of politics are direct participants in political activity: people, their organizations, parties, movements pursuing political goals, solving political problems.
Political power is the ability of certain political forces to exert a decisive influence on society, to develop and implement policies based on the balance of forces and interests, subordinating people to this.
Political processes are the interaction of various political forces, political subjects in solving political problems, their impact on policy objects.
Political ideas and concepts – theoretical understanding of the political development of society, reflection of the interests and sentiments of various social groups, development of solutions to political problems.
Listing only the main components of politics shows that as a phenomenon it is enormous. Politics covers almost all areas of modern life. It is no coincidence that the following concepts are widely used: economic policy, technical policy, military policy, social policy, cultural policy, educational policy, etc. Policy is also diverse in its form. This includes management, the exercise of power, and the struggle for power, for influence in society, and activities regarding political problems, and the art of political relations, and theoretical work on putting forward ideas and programs for their implementation.
The breadth and diversity of the political spectrum dictate the need for many sciences that develop individual aspects of politics as a social phenomenon. And such a variety of sciences has existed in reality for a long time. Many sciences have their own types in the study of various aspects of politics (methodological, specifically applied, sociological, historical, regulatory, etc.). These are history and geography, law and sociology, philosophy and economic theory, psychology and cybernetics, praxeology and logic, etc. Each of them has as its subject the study of one or another form of politics, starting from the methodological aspect and ending with specific applied issues.
History studies real socio-political processes, different points of view on these processes, and thereby allows us to clarify and explain the causes of current political processes. Political and economic geography deals in detail with the conditions (spatial and economic conditionality of political processes, the role of the environment, the natural basis for the formation of political activity, etc.) that are important for the analysis of the political process. Philosophy creates a general picture of the world, clarifies the place of man and his activities in this world, and at the same time gives general concepts about the principles and conditions of knowledge, the development of theoretical concepts in general, political ones in particular. Law outlines the general framework for the activities of all government structures, as well as other organizations, citizens and their associations, that is, the framework for the formation of phenomena central to politics. Sociology studies the structure and functioning of both society as a whole and the individual groups that make it up, as well as socio-political relations in this society. Praxeology studies the conditions and currents of all types of human activity, including political activity.
Each of these sciences has its own subject and its own angle of view in the study of politics. And only political science studies politics as a whole. Most domestic and foreign scientists consider political science as a general, integrative science of politics in all its manifestations. It interacts with other sciences of the socio-political cycle, using their scientific achievements in the interests of a more complete knowledge of politics.
Question 7. Political thought of the Ancient East
Political science has a rich, long history in the form of the evolution of political ideas. It is based on ideas and concepts that the best thinkers of the past developed throughout human history. Political and legal ideology arose together with the state and went through a centuries-long path of development. Understanding social problems and moral and political values began in ancient times. Various ideas related to power and rights, state and personality, democracy and despotism are found in the works of thinkers of Ancient China, the Arab East, the Muslim world, and European civilization. They were tested by historical practice and polished into clear formulas of political documents. There was a constant search for optimal models of social structure, relationships between the individual, society and the state, and for a long time it was carried out within the framework of philosophical and religious teachings.
In the III–II millennia BC. e. people's thinking was still dominated by mythological ideas about the world around them. This was also reflected in political thought: it was based on the idea of the divine origin of political orders. True, the relationship between earthly and heavenly rulers was interpreted differently.
For the ancient Egyptians, Babylonians, and Indians, the gods themselves, under any circumstances, remained the arbiters of earthly affairs, the first legislators and rulers. For example, God had a special contractual relationship with the Jewish people and was considered their main ruler, legislator and judge. The ancient Chinese had a slightly different idea: for them, the emperor was the only conductor of the will of the heavenly powers. The gods endowed him with all the fullness of earthly power, giving him special internal strengths and capabilities for its implementation.
Emphasizing the divine nature of power has long been a cross-cutting theme of both mythological and religious worldviews. They illuminated the existing social structure with the indisputable authority of higher powers - the hierarchy of gods or a single god. For example, in Ancient Babylon in the 18th century. BC e. King Hammurabi portrayed his legislation as the implementation of the will of the gods. Therefore, the division into slaves and free, the economic and legal inequality of the free themselves had to be perceived as fair, given by the will of the gods.
In Ancient Iran around the 8th century. BC e. The religious doctrine of Zoroastrianism (Zoroaster, Zoroaster) was born. This doctrine had a great influence on the ideological and religious concepts of both the East and the West (including the formation of Christianity). The essence of Zoroastrianism is the struggle in the world of two principles: good and evil. Good is personified by the light god - Ormuzd, evil - by the dark god - Ahriman. Light and darkness are fighting each other, and the meaning of each person’s existence lies in the active struggle against darkness and evil. Zarathushtra was convinced of the ultimate victory of good, although evil may temporarily triumph. The state, according to Zarathushtra, should be the earthly embodiment of the bright god Ormuzd. The monarch acts as his servant and must fight against evil in the state, instilling goodness.
In Ancient India, the beginnings of the ideology of Brahmanism were outlined already in the Vedas in the 2nd millennium BC. BC), which substantiate the division of society into 4 varnas, i.e. classes: brahmanas, kshatriyas, vaishyas and sudras. These classes and their different positions are predetermined by dharma, that is, world law and duty. The laws of Manu (2nd millennium BC) substantiated the leadership role of the brahmans and their exclusive right to interpret dharma. In addition to sophisticated earthly punishments for violation of dharma by representatives of other classes, the laws of Manu introduced fear of the transmigration of the soul into a lower being.
It was directed against the Brahmanical ideology and the varna system in the 6th century. BC e. the teachings of Siddhartha, nicknamed Buddha (Enlightened One). For Buddhists, Dharma acts as a pattern that governs the world, a natural law. For rational behavior, knowledge and application of this law is necessary: the path of legality turns out to be at the same time the path of justice and wisdom. The main thing is that, unlike Brahmanism, Buddhism proclaimed an orientation towards an individual path of salvation.
Certain rationalistic interpretations of the state and law are observed in the Arthashastra (IV–III centuries BC), the author of which is considered to be Kautilya (Chanakya), advisor and minister of King Chandragupta I. In addition to moral standards, the emphasis was on practical benefits (artha) and the political events and administrative institutions determined by it.
The great thinker of Ancient China, Confucius (VI-V centuries BC), recognized the Divine origin of the power of the emperor, but rejected the Divine origin of the state. According to his teaching, it arose from the unification of families. That is, the state is a large patriarchal family, where the emperor is a strict but fair father, and his subjects are his obedient children. Relations in the state must be regulated primarily by morality. The welfare of the people is one of the central points of the political part of his doctrine. A wise administrator must know well what people like and what they hate; he must always strive for good, and then people will follow him. Following these principles means "tao" (right path). Confucius himself did not achieve much success in trying to put his ideas into practice. However, his doctrine became the starting point, the standard “measuring scale” of political culture with which thinkers and reformers of subsequent generations compared their theories.
Within the framework of Taoism, the founder of which is considered to be Lao Tzu (6th century BC), the right path (Tao) was considered not as a path in accordance with the requirements of the gods, but as a natural necessity. That is, according to Lao Tzu, the laws of nature are higher than the laws of the gods and carry within them the highest virtue and natural justice. Thus, he was one of the first to criticize the socio-political structure of China. His calls for abstinence and a return to communal life in its patriarchy did not receive widespread public support.
The founder of Mohism, Mozi (5th century BC), substantiated the idea of natural equality of people. To do this, he interpreted the concept of “the will of heaven” in a new way, considering it as universality, that is, equal treatment of all people. Hence his sharp criticism of the existing order. Mozi became one of the first founders of the contractual concept of the origin of the state. He argued that the lack of governance and a common understanding of justice determined the state of hostility and chaos in society. To eliminate them, people chose the most virtuous and wise man and called him the son of heaven.
The legalists of Ancient China, represented by one of the prominent representatives of this school, Shang-Yang (IV century BC), criticized the views of Confucius for idealism regarding the moral standards for the ruler, which he should be guided by. Shang-Yang believed that one can govern not with the help of virtues, but with the help of strict laws, which people must obey under pain of punishment and violence. To achieve this, legalists substantiated the principle of collective responsibility based on mutual responsibility (five- and ten-dvorka) and introduced the ideas of total denunciation. These ideas played a significant role in the further development of the public administration system of Ancient China and neighboring countries, and subsequently, through the Mongol conquest, in Russia.
Thus, the first attempts to comprehend the socio-political structure within the framework of a religious-mythological worldview consisted of considering earthly orders as an inextricable part of cosmic orders that had Divine origin. Thus, the superiority of order over chaos was asserted.
Question 8. Political thought of Ancient Greece and Rome
In the 1st millennium BC. e. As society developed, there was a leap in spiritual culture and humanity took the first steps towards rational self-awareness within the framework of philosophy. The political philosophy of Ancient Greece is rightfully considered the true pinnacle of political thought of the Ancient World. It initially developed as an ideology of free people, so its main value is freedom. The peculiarities of the geographical location of Hellas made it possible for the close coexistence of various forms of government; the diversity of interstate relations and cultural styles provided a true richness of political life. In many city-polises, citizens actively participated in political life, the government was not religious, all of Hellas was an arena of struggle for power not by priests, but by ordinary citizens. That is, the development of political science reflected the objective needs of social life.
One of the first attempts to consider the emergence and formation of man and society as part of a natural process, as a result of adaptation and imitation, were the ideas of Democritus (460–370). That is, the policy and laws are artificial formations, but created in the course of the natural evolution of man and society as part of nature. From this follows the criterion of justice for society: everything that corresponds to nature is fair (a sense of proportion, mutual assistance, protection, brotherhood, etc.). Democritus was one of the first to substantiate the idea of a democratic social system built on the principles of equality and justice. At the same time, he cannot be presented as an unconditional supporter of the mandatory participation of all citizens in the management of the policy. He, like many others, selects for this the best people most capable of management.
Another direction that substantiates the democratic structure of the state was sophistry (5th century BC). For example, Protagoras (481–411) justified this by the fact that the gods gave people the same opportunity to be involved in wisdom, virtues and the art of state life. The main task of the policy is to instill in citizens such virtues as justice, prudence and piety.
Socrates (469–399) was one of the first to lay the foundation for all subsequent political science with the idea that those who know should govern. Political knowledge is achieved through the hard work of a person worthy of this truth, moral and politically virtuous.
Plato's political ideas (427–347) are most fully expounded in the dialogue “The Republic”. Participants in the dialogue are trying to model the image of an ideal state where true justice would reign. Plato considers the motivating reason for the creation of the state to be the diversity of human material needs and the impossibility of satisfying them alone. The key to the stability of the state is the division of labor according to the inclination of the soul. The three principles of the human soul - rational, furious and desirable - in the state correspond to three similar principles - deliberative, protective and business. These latter correspond to three classes: rulers, warriors and producers, who should not interfere in each other’s affairs. The state must be governed by a special class of philosophers specially trained for this role.
Plato describes 7 types of government: one - described above - ideal, which did not exist in reality; two are correct (monarchy and aristocracy) and four imperfect political forms: timocracy, oligarchy, democracy and tyranny. Moreover, he calls democracy the main problem of politics, because it is not the power of the masses, which will inevitably lead to the tyranny of the majority. In democracy, in his opinion, morals are corrupted, prudence is banished, and arrogance and shamelessness are established. Democracy is short-lived; the crowd very soon yields power to an individual tyrant.
In Plato's political ideal, the individual, society and state are combined in the polis. He believed that true knowledge was not inherent in the ordinary individual, and sought to subordinate it to the state. To do this, he introduces a strict hierarchy of classes: philosopher-rulers (upper class); guards and warriors; artisans and peasants (physical labor). Subjects have nothing of their own - no family, no property - everything is common. But the upper classes do not have the right to appropriate state property. “We fashion a state,” Plato wrote, “not so that only some people in it are happy, but so that everyone in it is happy” (see Plato, “The State”). Many see the origins of totalitarianism in Plato's political teachings.
Another outstanding scientist of Ancient Greece was Aristotle (384–322), who analyzed many political concepts. In his opinion, political science deals with the state, the polis. He argued that the state is a natural entity; the development of society proceeds from the family to the community (village), and from it to the state (city-polis). The natural origin of the state is due to the fact that “man by nature is a political being” and carries within himself an instinctive desire for “cohabitation together.” However, the state has priority - it, in his opinion, by nature comes before the family and the individual. The state exists for the sake of a better life for its citizens. In his book Politics, Aristotle did not distinguish the state from society, emphasizing that “it is necessary that the whole precede the part.” The state must be the embodiment of justice and law, an expression of the common interest of citizens.
Aristotle's teaching also contains totalitarian tendencies: man is part of the state, his interests are subordinated to the public good. He called citizens free people, but understood freedom only as the opposite of slavery: citizens are not slaves, no one owns them; they are engaged in military, legislative, and judicial affairs, and agriculture and industrial production are the lot of slaves.
Comparing the forms of government, Aristotle divides them on two grounds: the number of rulers and the purpose, i.e., the moral significance of government. The result was three “right” ones (monarchy, aristocracy, polity) and three “wrong” ones (tyranny, oligarchy and democracy). He considered the best form of polity, which should unite three elements: virtue, wealth, freedom - and thereby combine the interests of the rich and the poor.
The famous Roman orator and thinker Marcus Cicero (106 -43 BC) made a certain contribution to the interpretation of the state. For him, the state appears as a coordinated legal communication; he considered it the embodiment of justice and law. Plato and Aristotle considered natural law and the state to be inseparable. Cicero said that natural law arose before any written law, before the creation of the state. In this regard, Cicero stood at the origins of understanding the idea of a “rule of law state.” He considered the most reasonable form of state to be a mixed one, in which royal power, aristocracy and democracy would be combined.
Thus, the main problems of the political philosophy of antiquity were the forms of statehood, the nature of power, and the position of the individual in the state.
Question 9. Political thought of the Middle Ages
The content of political teachings predetermines the periodization of their history, since the problem of identifying stages in the development of political thought is primarily of a general theoretical nature. In this sense, the most appropriate is the construction of a periodization that coincides with the civilizational division of the entire history of mankind: Ancient World, Middle Ages, Modern Time, Contemporary Time. Accordingly, the content of this chapter is structured with one deviation from the diagram. This is familiarity with religious ideas about politics.
As already noted, the very first attempts in human history to understand socio-political problems have reached us in religious myths and legends. The solution to a number of social problems is told by the myth of Noah, which is more than five thousand years old. Many issues of power, property, and human relationships are reflected in the myths of Ancient Greece and Rome. A systematic approach to the consideration of many issues of statehood, law, and social behavior is contained in the documents of world religions: Buddhism, Christianity, Islam. Religions sanctified the existing social order with the indisputable authority of higher powers - the hierarchy of gods or a single god.
"Social progress" - Progress. Social progress. Is social progress possible? Progress. Information flow. Different nations develop at different speeds. Social progress and development of society. A number of patterns. State of the art. Time. What is society? Uniform development.
"Development of Society" - Numerous wars. Primitive communal system. Regressive role. Wars played a progressive role. Developed industrial society. Revolution. Citizens. Primitive system. Practical part. Reform. Computerization of schools. The law of accelerating society. Social progress. Social phenomenon. Law of development of society.
"Sociological Research" - Social System. Social contract theory. Works from the Antiquity period. Aristotle's theory. Sociology as a science. Social organizations. Human. Types of sociological research. "The Republic" of Plato. Sociology. Complete examination. Content analysis. Functions of sociology. Telephone and mail survey.
“Society and public relations” - Society and nature. Functions of society. Society. Society and public relations. What is society? Social relations Spheres of public life Society is a dynamic system Society and nature. Spheres of public life. Society is a dynamic system.
“Social progress” - The process of inconsistency. Examples from Russian history. Humanity. Diversity of ways and forms of social development. Progress. Georg Hegel. Progress and regression. Social development. Sociological theories. Two approaches to solving the question of the direction of human history. Karl Popper. People's ideas about the future.
“Discipline of sociology” - Methods of sociological research. Textbook of sociology. Sociology cannot exist without obtaining empirical information. System of sociological education in Russia. Experiment. Sociological phenomena. Sociological research. Theoretical section. Respondent. Studying documents. System of scientific knowledge.
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