Regulating legal relations and activities of participants in criminal proceedings in the sphere of resolving issues of criminal liability of specific persons.
Otherwise: criminal procedure law as one of the branches of the legal system, it is a set of rules governing social relations arising in connection with the initiation, investigation, consideration and resolution of criminal cases.
This branch of law regulates specific (but not all!) social relations that develop between participants in criminal proceedings. The main characteristic of this relationship is that:
Important! Please keep in mind that:
- Each case is unique and individual.
- A thorough study of the issue does not always guarantee a positive outcome. It depends on many factors.
To get the most detailed advice on your issue, you just need to choose any of the options offered:
- they act as volitional decisions of participants in criminal proceedings, since criminal procedural law affects public life primarily through the consciousness of people;
- arise in connection with the crime committed, the need to solve it and bring to justice those responsible for its commission;
- have a procedural nature, since they are regulated by procedural rules of law, and therefore, in essence, they are criminal procedural.
Subject of criminal procedure law
Depending on the needs of the subjects that determine the emergence and development of any social relations, it is customary to distinguish three groups of social relations within the subject of regulation of criminal procedural law:
- basic, or system-forming, relationships;
- derivative relations;
- accompanying relationships.
Thus, the subject of regulation of criminal procedural law includes:
- main (system-forming) relations related to establishing the presence or absence of grounds for criminal liability, imposition of criminal liability and/or release from it;
- derivatives (from basic ones) relations arising in connection with the implementation of their subjective rights and obligations by participants in criminal proceedings, as well as in some cases, relations to prevent the causes and conditions of the commission of a crime and compensation for damage caused as a result of the crime committed.
More details
1) Basic, or system-forming, relationships- public relations,
- arising in connection with the establishment of the presence or absence of a crime provided for by criminal law (grounds for criminal liability), as well as
- arising in connection with the imposition of criminal liability and/or exemption from it.
The main relations form the “core” of the subject of regulation of criminal procedural law and are determined, first of all, by the law enforcement nature of the criminal process (first it is necessary to establish the factual circumstances of the case, and only then make a decision on the imposition or release of liability in the appropriate procedural - act).
Thus, the main social relations include those that arise during the pre-investigation check of materials at the stage of initiating a criminal case, during which the presence or absence of signs of a crime is established, and, consequently, the grounds for criminal liability (Part 2 of Article 140 of the Code of Criminal Procedure of the Russian Federation) ; when attracting a person in capacity (Articles 171-172 of the Code of Criminal Procedure of the Russian Federation); when rendering a sentence (Chapter 39 of the Code of Criminal Procedure of the Russian Federation) or termination of a criminal case (Articles 24-25, 212-214 of the Code of Criminal Procedure of the Russian Federation); in proceedings against minors (Chapter 50 of the Code of Criminal Procedure of the Russian Federation) or on the application of compulsory measures of a medical nature (Chapter 51 of the Code of Criminal Procedure of the Russian Federation).
2) Derivative relations. These traditionally include relationships:
- arising when familiarizing participants in criminal proceedings with the case materials (Article 216, 217, Part 2 of Article 225 of the Code of Criminal Procedure of the Russian Federation), associated with the restoration of missed deadlines (Article 130 of the Code of Criminal Procedure of the Russian Federation), for compensation of procedural costs to the victim, witness, their law- representatives, expert, specialist, translator, witnesses (Article 131 of the Code of Criminal Procedure of the Russian Federation), for compensation (compensation) for harm and restoration of rights in connection with the rehabilitation of a person unreasonably subjected to criminal prosecution (Chapter 18 of the Code of Criminal Procedure of the Russian Federation);
- arising when applying measures of criminal procedural coercion to a number of participants in criminal proceedings: relations that develop during the detention of a suspect (Articles 91-92 of the Code of Criminal Procedure), the application of a preventive measure to him before bringing charges (Article 100 of the Code of Criminal Procedure), the implementation of forced bringing a witness (part 7 of article 56 of the Code of Criminal Procedure), etc.;
- exclusively of a “procedural” nature - in particular, relations that arise when referring a case to jurisdiction or jurisdiction (Part 5 of Article 152, Articles 34, 35 of the Code of Criminal Procedure of the Russian Federation), extension of the terms of inquiry (Article 223 of the Code of Criminal Procedure of the Russian Federation), preliminary investigation ( Article 162 of the Code of Criminal Procedure of the Russian Federation), detention (Article 109 of the Code of Criminal Procedure of the Russian Federation), etc.;
- control, verification nature - they develop at almost all stages of criminal proceedings, have a very diverse subject composition, since they are determined by the law enforcement nature of criminal proceedings, which ensures the legality and validity of the adoption and execution of procedural decisions in criminal cases.
3) Related relationships in the subject of regulation of criminal procedural law are not mandatory, since they are aimed at achieving some additional, “related” needs. The accompanying relations in the structure of the subject of regulation of criminal procedural law include:
- relations that develop when compensating for damage caused by a crime (Articles 44, 45, 54, 55 of the Code of Criminal Procedure of the Russian Federation);
- relations aimed at identifying the causes and conditions that contributed to the commission of a crime and their prevention (part 4 of article 29 of the Code of Criminal Procedure of the Russian Federation, part 2 of article 158 of the Code of Criminal Procedure of the Russian Federation).
Method of criminal procedure law
Method of criminal procedural regulation is a set of techniques (elements) that are used in the mediation of social relations in the sphere of criminal proceedings by the rules of criminal procedure law and which optimally ensure the achievement of the goal and solution of the problems of criminal proceedings.
Thus, the group of basic (system-forming) relations that serve as the core of the subject of regulation of criminal procedural law is characterized by mandatory regulation, built on the subordination of the goals and interests of participants in social relations. These relations are subject to public interest, ensured by the state through its competent authorities, which, in turn, ensures the creation of rights and legitimate interests. Public interest serves as the basis for structuring the above relations.
On the other hand, public interest is a set of private interests, and private is an element of public, and therefore it is completely logical and natural that private legal interests characteristic of the dispositive regulation of social relations are interspersed into criminal procedural law.
Thus, dispositive regulation is characteristic of the second and third groups of social relations included in the subject of regulation of criminal procedural law. It, for example, can manifest itself when a participant in criminal proceedings takes advantage, if he considers it necessary, of the right to appeal against the actions (inaction) of an investigator or interrogator in court (Articles 123, 125 of the Code of Criminal Procedure of the Russian Federation) in order to oblige the investigator to conduct a confrontation between the victim and a witness, or will file a claim for compensation for property damage against the direct cause of harm - the accused.
Both of these methods of legal regulation, forming the criminal procedural method, are primary and are also called main in the legal literature.
System of criminal procedure law
Criminal procedural norms, constituting a unified normative basis of criminal procedural law, are divided into fairly separate groups that regulate similar relations. In the doctrine, these groups of norms are called criminal procedural institutions.
So, criminal procedure institute is a set of criminal procedural norms that regulate interconnected homogeneous social relations.
For example, “Rehabilitation”, “Criminal prosecution”, “Discontinuation of a criminal case”.
Taken together, criminal procedural institutions form system of criminal procedure law.
The place of each institution is determined by the importance of social relations subject to criminal procedural regulation. They are arranged sequentially - from the norms of the general part of the criminal procedure law to the special norms.
The system of basic institutions of criminal procedure law looks like this:
- general provisions of criminal proceedings;
- pre-trial proceedings;
- judicial proceedings;
- special procedure for criminal proceedings;
- the international cooperation.
In turn, the main institutions are divided into smaller or simple ones, for example: the main institution of pre-trial proceedings includes the institution of initiating a criminal case and the institution of preliminary investigation.
In the general theory of law, such a gradation of basic institutions into simpler ones is explained by the existence of sub-institutions, which are sources of a lower rank than those of which they are an integral part. This division is due to the legislative design of the act, which includes specific criminal procedural rules.
Sources of criminal procedure law
The question of the sources of criminal procedural law remains controversial in the legal literature. In the general theory of state and law, material and formal sources of law are distinguished.
Material sources- objective and subjective factors (forces) that create the law; those sources that “nourish” the norms of law.
The vast majority of specialists in the field of theory of state and law include:
- State power. Rules of law are created within the framework of lawmaking, which is one of the areas of government activity. Legislative functions belong only to government bodies. Consequently, the content of the rules of law represents the imperious command of the Russian state, supported and ensured by the coercive force of state bodies;
- Legal consciousness. Legal consciousness is a relatively independent form of social consciousness in the form of a set of ideas, views, perceptions and feelings that express people’s attitude to the law. It plays an important role in lawmaking, since it determines the need for legislators to understand the laws of social development, the needs and interests of the individual, society and the state as a whole or its individual groups (or layers).
Formal sources criminal procedural law - the forms of its existence and manifestation in social development; external image of legal norms.
The formal sources of criminal procedural law, the problem of which is hotly debated, are:
- Constitution of the Russian Federation. In accordance with Art. 15 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation, its norms have supreme legal force, direct effect and are applied throughout the territory of Russia;
- international treaties. According to Art. 15 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation, generally recognized principles and norms of international law, enshrined in international covenants, conventions and other documents, international treaties between Russia and other states are an integral part of it;
- Code of Criminal Procedure of the Russian Federation (a systematic collection of criminal procedural laws; it contains the vast majority of criminal procedural norms to be applied in the stages of initiation and preliminary investigation, consideration and resolution of a criminal case in the courts of first instance, as well as in control and other stages of criminal legal proceedings);
- other laws containing criminal procedural norms (legislative acts containing criminal procedural norms, in particular, the Federal Constitutional Law of October 23, 1996 “On the Judicial System of the Russian Federation”, Federal Law of December 17, 1998 "On magistrates in the Russian Federation", Federal Law of May 31, 2002 "On advocacy in the Russian Federation" and some others).
The official criminal procedural doctrine recognizes only legislative acts as formal sources of criminal procedural law. However, this approach currently does not correspond to modern social and legal realities. In this regard, some scientists include other acts or phenomena of a legal nature among them:
- decisions of the Constitutional Court of the Russian Federation (do not create new legal norms, but their recognition of the unconstitutionality of a particular norm of criminal procedure legislation entails the termination of its validity, a change in the essence of the content of this norm or its part and the application directly -constitutional provisions in the field of criminal proceedings);
- by-laws of ministries, departments, departments and services, decisions of the Plenum of the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation (some authors believe that these acts are not sources of law, other experts have a sharply negative attitude towards this approach, believing that it is of a formal nature);
- government acts are sources of criminal procedural law in accordance with officially current legislation (in particular, Article 82 of the Code of Criminal Procedure of the Russian Federation established that the conditions for storage, recording and transfer of certain categories of material evidence are determined by the Government of Russia. Consequently, the form of existence and manifestation of criminal procedural law - rules of conduct - is the corresponding government act).
It is also unacceptable to turn a blind eye to the fact of the existence of informal sources of criminal procedural law, which include judicial practice and legal custom.
It is no coincidence that in relation to judicial practice, official representatives of the Judicial Department at the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation point out that “... among the undoubted advantages of creating a bank (bank of court decisions - author’s note) is that every judge will be able to turn to this or that decision and find the right way out of a difficult legal situation.”
The role of legal custom is much more significant than is commonly believed in the criminal procedure literature.
What could our distant ancestors write down? Something that simply could not survive over the centuries due to frequent use? I think these were culinary recipes
Which books remain the newest? If you look at these, it’s as if no one has ever touched their pages... These are the most boring and useless books.
So it turns out that when excavating our libraries, our descendants can conclude that these are the books we read, because our favorite books, literally read to the core, are unlikely to survive centuries of use... alas.
So with these archaic slander - one wrote, another read, so an almost untouched parchment or almost an entire clay tablet of centuries and centuries gathers dust, remaining intact and useless.
What else could our distant ancestors write down? Something that simply could not survive over the centuries due to frequent use?
I think they were cooking recipes.
If only because all housewives still write down their most favorite recipes in their notebooks, despite the most luxurious and complete cookbooks.
So what do we know about this?
Actually, not too much. There is an ancient Chinese manuscript from the 3rd millennium BC. e., which describes a recipe for fruit sherbet - “frozen sweets prepared using snow, ice, fruit, wine and honey were served at the emperor’s table.”
There is also an ancient Greek recipe for fried fish, written on the side of an ancient jug. It dates from about the same time as Chinese.
Of course, the ancient Armenian recipe for a dish with meat, very similar to the well-known dumplings, is worth mentioning.
As for Russian sources, one of the first chronicles also contains a culinary recipe. This is “The Tale of Bygone Years” from the 10th century, which contains a recipe for oatmeal jelly. True, this is not jelly in our modern understanding, but rather a pudding - having a thick consistency.
For those who have not read The Tale of Bygone Years, I will try to retell the main plot of the history of this very jelly pudding.
It was either in the 8th or 10th century. Not far from Kyiv was the city of Belgorod. So it was besieged by the Pecheneg tribes, who were constantly at war with the Russians. Belgorod was well fortified, so the siege was long. Famine was about to break out among the city's defenders.
The townspeople gathered in the square at a meeting and began to offer their options for solving the problem. One of the wisest old men suggested defeating the enemy by cunning. And this is what it should have been.
From the remaining supplies - which turned out to be oatmeal and a little honey - the old man offered to prepare a dish. The women diluted the flour with water and prepared the “chatter”. We also sweetened the water with honey, and it turned out to be “full.” The men dug two deep wells. The old man ordered a tub of “chatterbox” to be lowered into one of the wells, and a tub of “full” into the other.
Having completed the preparations, the residents called several Pecheneg warriors to the city.
When they arrived, the elder said to them: “Why are you ruining yourself? Is it possible to outlast us? If you stand for ten years, what will you do to us, for we have food from the earth. If you don’t believe me, then see with your own eyes.”
With these words they led the Pechenegs to the wells. They scooped up “chatter” from the first well, and “full” from the second, mixed it and brewed it over the fire, ate it themselves and gave it to the Pechenegs to try. And they took them with them, sending them home so that they could tell their princes about what they had seen. The Pecheneg princes ate an amazing dish and, deciding that a further siege was pointless, left the city.
Isn't this a nicer story than some kind of denunciation?
And here, in fact, is a modernized recipe for this very jelly pudding, consisting of two main parts - mash and satiy.
You will need: 2 cups of oatmeal (it can be easily prepared by grinding oatmeal), 2 tablespoons of honey, a pinch of vanilla, 8 cups of water (can be replaced with milk, unsweetened cocoa), salt and any spices to taste.
Pour oatmeal into a saucepan, add warm water, stir well so that there are no lumps. This is the so-called “talker”. You need to let it swell for 6-8 hours (you can leave it overnight). Then strain through a sieve, add honey and vanilla, add salt to taste and cook, stirring until thickened. Pour the hot mixture into cooled molds and let it harden. If the molds are large, the jelly pudding can be cut into portions with a knife.
It turns out to be a tasty and very nutritious dish, and with an ancient history!
Bon appetit!
How can you make banks for milk rivers from liquid jelly? What is the connection between the words “sour” and “jelly”? How many jelly were there in Rus' and what does the seventh water have to do with it? The answers to these questions will not only cause an obsessive “I’ll go and eat”, but will also help you remember, and, if desired, embody the varied and rich Russian cuisine yourself...
In Russian cuisine there are well-known dishes (cabbage soup, porridge, pancakes) and temporarily forgotten ones (kalya, kundyum, levashi). Kissels are at the intersection of these two sets: while remaining a common Russian dish, they are rarely prepared according to original recipes. “Milk rivers, jelly banks” - they ironically speak of fabulous prosperity, without thinking about how banks can be built from modern liquid jelly. At the same time, in national Russia there was a specific dish behind this saying: hardened oatmeal jelly was cut into pieces and consumed with milk.
According to the Tale of Bygone Years (12th century), jelly was included in the Russian diet already in the 10th century. The chronicle describes ]]> a military trick ]]> used in 997 by the inhabitants of Belgorod during the siege by the Pechenegs. The wise old man ordered the starving Belgorod residents to prepare a mash for jelly from “oats, wheat or bran” and dig a tub with it into the ground. A tub of well-fed water sweetened with honey was placed in the second well. The Pechenegs were invited to negotiations, they cooked jelly in front of them and treated them to food, thereby demonstrating that it was pointless to continue the siege - “We have more to feed from the earth.” The etymology also indicates the ancient origin of jelly from grain flour: ]]> the words “sour” and “jelly” have the same root ]]> and are related to the word “kvass”. Unlike unleavened pea jelly, oatmeal, rye and wheat jelly were placed on sourdough or sourdough, and therefore had a sour taste.
The familiar jelly made with potato starch began to enter Russian life at the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th centuries, but they became widespread only towards the end of the 19th century. The adoption of potato flour into Russian cuisine as a new thickener caused the natural development of culinary tradition. The first and most popular recipe was cranberry jelly, which became a link between jelly made from grain and potato flour. Remaining jelly in the original sense of the word (cranberry is a sour berry), it belonged to a new variety of this dish - starch jelly, many of which will no longer be sour, but sweet. At the same time, potato jelly remained a food: they were prepared very thick and served chilled with milk (almond or cow) or cream.
Oatmeal and other grain jelly
In his “essays on folk aesthetics” “Lad” (1982), Vasily Belov called oatmeal jelly “]]> the favorite Russian food ]]>.” This dish has firmly entered into the figurative structure of the Russian language and into Russian folklore: oatmeal jelly is mentioned in fairy tales (“]]> Geese-swans ]]>”, “]]> Three Kingdoms ]]>”, “]]> Sea King and Vasilisa the Wise ]]> "), folk songs, proverbs and sayings.
The remains of sifted oatmeal (seeding) were poured with water in the evening and fermented; early in the morning the infusion was filtered and boiled until thickened. Wheat and rye jelly was prepared in a similar way using milk or water. A somewhat complicated technology involved ]]> the use of suloy ]]> (from “drain”): bran or unsown flour was fermented, filled with water and left for several days, changing the water, which became increasingly clear. This is how the saying about distant relatives was born - “the seventh water on jelly.” Kissel was usually cooked from raw suloj, but a recipe for drying it to obtain “jelly flour” has also been preserved. They could also cook grain jelly and prepare it with suloi without the fermentation stage - such recipes are given, for example, in “]]> Russian Cookery ]]>” (1816) by Vasily Levshin.
“The hot jelly thickened before our eyes,” writes Vasily Belov, “you have to eat it without yawning. We ate it with rye bread, seasoned with sour cream or vegetable oil. The cooled jelly froze and could be cut with a knife. It was tumbled from a spilled jug into a large dish and filled with milk or wort. Such food was served at the end of the meal, as they said, “to top up.” Even the most well-fed were obliged to at least take a sip...” This is where the proverb “There is always a place for jelly and the Tsar” came from - in Russian peasant cuisine, oatmeal jelly was considered a delicacy. In the chef's version, it was served "with honey, or almond milk, or nut butter."
There is a similar dish in German cuisine - Haferschleim, which played a well-known role in Russian literature. In 1816, the young romantic Vasily Zhukovsky translated Johann-Peter Goebel’s idyll “]]> Oatmeal jelly ]]>” (Das Habermuß in the Alemannic dialect of German), where this dish symbolizes idyllic rural life: “Children, oatmeal jelly on the table; read a prayer; / Sit quietly, don’t get your sleeves dirty and don’t meddle in the potty; / Eat: every gift is perfect for us and the giving is good,” etc. The poem became widely known among readers, becoming the programmatic work of the emerging Russian romanticism, with the attention to the national way of life characteristic of this movement.
Oatmeal jelly with a full meal was a traditional funeral food, served at the end of the table. In this capacity, it is repeatedly found in Pavel Melnikov-Pechersky’s novel “]]> In the Woods ]]>” (1871-1874): “Nikitishna prepared different jelly: for honored guests - wheat with almond milk, for the street - oatmeal with honey.” . The Bolshoi, Maly and Nizhny Kiselny lanes that exist in Moscow are echoes of the Kiselnaya Sloboda, which was located near the Sretensky, Mother of God of the Nativity and Varsonofevsky monasteries destroyed by the Soviet authorities. In the settlement lived kiselniks who cooked jelly for the funeral.
A dish of peasant cuisine close to grain jelly was salamata - “liquid unleavened jelly made from any flour,” ]]> according to the definition of Melnikov-Pechersky ]]> . However, oatmeal and other jelly made from grain flour were not a sign of only peasant household life: in ]]> the menu of students and gymnasium students of the Academy of Sciences ]]> , approved by Mikhailo Lomonosov in 1761, oatmeal jelly with fullness is present in the “Cold” section.
Pea jelly
Another original Russian dish was pea jelly. It was even easier to prepare than oatmeal: pea flour was brewed with water, avoiding the formation of lumps, brought to a boil, poured into containers and cooled. As Vasily Belov notes, “many people loved it and ate it hot and cold on fasting days. When cold, the frozen pea jelly was cut with a knife and poured generously with linseed oil.” More traditional was serving with hemp oil.
In cities, pea jelly was popular as street food, the industry of which was very developed and diverse in the Russian Empire. Alexander Bashutsky in “Panorama of St. Petersburg” (1834) noted that “Russians do not care at all about the time or place of their breakfasts or lunches. He eats wherever he happens to and when he feels the need for it: a navvy sits down to have breakfast on the bank of his ditch, a coachman eats while sitting on a box, a painter on a roof or forest floor, a cabman on the street next to his horse. In accordance with these habits, in St. Petersburg, in addition to taverns or simple tavern establishments for the people, hundreds of peddlers walk along the streets or stand near bridges with food and drinks corresponding to the seasons.”
The peddling of jelly was called kiselnichanie, and the merchant himself was called kiselnik or kiselshchik. In the book “]]> National Images of Industrialists ]]>” (1799) this profession is described in detail:
“Jelly peddlers walk through the streets with a tray on their heads, and when they stand in the market, they place their tray on trestles; which are made of wooden blocks folded crosswise and tied at the top with string. The jelly is placed on a board, covered with a white rag, at the other end of the tray there is a sufficient number of wooden plates, and the same forks or matches; to the one who demands jelly, the peddler cuts off a piece, cuts it into small pieces on a plate, and pours hemp oil from the flask he has for better relish; then the guest, using a sharp wooden match like a fork, eats with appetite. Kiselnik with his movable table moves several times a day from place to place, and stops mostly where he sees enough working people and sailors. Here a tree sawyer appears, having his tool in his hands and an ax in his belt, satisfying his hunger with jelly. Kissel is usually cooked from pea flour, and is mostly consumed during Lent.”
Kiselnikaniye brought a modest income. In the parable “]]> Kiselnik ]]>” by the famous Russian poet of the 18th century Alexander Sumarokov, a merchant of pea jelly, trying to improve his affairs, stoops to stealing icons from the altar. In the satirical poem “]]> The Lamentable Fall of the Poets ]]>” by another 18th-century poet Vasily Maykov, the scene where “ministers sell pea jelly” is cited as deliberate nonsense.
Oatmeal and pea jelly were popular common dishes, but, as can be seen from the above quotes, pea jelly was more common in cities and was labeled as food for working people. In particular, cab drivers loved to snack on pea jelly. “It was especially difficult to serve in cab driver taverns,” recalled Vladimir Gilyarovsky ]]> . — There were a lot of them in Moscow. There is a yard with logs for horses outside, and inside there is a “skating rink” with food. Everything is on the rink: jowl, catfish, and pork. In the cold, the cabman loved something richer, and hot eggs, and rolls, and hearth-grass with bran, and then, of course, pea jelly.”
Kissels made with potato starch
The first experiments in potato cultivation ]]> in the Russian Empire ]]> were undertaken privately in the first half of the 18th century in accordance with the general European trend. Potato growing began to receive government support in 1765, when the Senate Manual “on the cultivation of earthen apples” was issued. The earliest Russian cookbook that has come down to us, “The Newest and Complete Cookbook” (1790, 2nd ed. 1791) by Nikolai Yatsenkov, already contains a recipe for making potato flour - starch. It is noteworthy that it is proposed to use it for milk jelly (with almond and cow milk), while for cranberry jelly the author recommends flour from “Sarochin millet”, that is, rice. In the “Economic Description of the Perm Province” of 1813, potato jelly is mentioned as a sign of the urban way of life: peasants eat potatoes “baked, boiled, in porridges, and also make their pies and shangi (a type of pastry) from it using flour; and in the cities they flavor soups with it, cook it with roasts and make flour from it for making jelly.”
The production of potato starch on an industrial scale began in the Russian Empire after 1843, as part of a complex of “most energetic measures for the spread of potato crops.” The amount of potatoes sown increased significantly, but still could not compare with grain crops: in 1851-1860, in the Moscow province, 10 times less potatoes were planted than grain crops, and in the Vologda province - 23 times less. Therefore, judging by explanatory dictionaries and encyclopedias, until the end of the 19th century, potato jelly was much inferior in popularity to grain and pea jelly.
In the “]]> Dictionary of the Russian Academy ]]>” (1789-1794), oatmeal jelly is highlighted as the main one; buckwheat and pea jelly are also mentioned (similarly in the second edition of 1806-1822). In the “]]> Dictionary of the Church Slavonic and Russian Language ]]>” (1847) jelly is defined more broadly as “a food prepared by leavening and boiling from various types of flour,” but only oatmeal jelly is given as an example. A definition of jelly, similar in meaning, as sour mealy jelly (oatmeal, rye or wheat; pea jelly is mentioned separately) is contained in Vladimir Dahl’s “Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language” published in 1863-1866 (similarly in the second edition of 1880-1882). But in the Brockhaus and Efron encyclopedia ]]> published at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries ]]> potato jelly is brought to the fore: “mealy jelly, prepared from potato flour and fruit juices (cranberry, cherry, red or black currant, raspberry, apple etc.), seasoned with lemon zest or cinnamon, less often with cloves, etc.; served with milk. Prepared without fruit juice, oatmeal, rye, and wheat K. is made with sourdough and sourdough; pea - fresh."
Many Russian cookbooks of the 19th century contain recipes for potato jelly. As Maxim Syrnikov notes, “if you follow any of those recipes to the letter, you will end up with a jelly of such density and consistency that you can’t call it a drink.” Indeed, berry, fruit and milk jelly made with potato starch were predominantly cold desserts. Probably, the tradition of eating them with milk (almond or cow) or cream came from grain jelly. Recipes for hot liquid jelly are much less common in cookbooks and are given separately.
Cranberry jelly
Cranberry jelly was probably the first berry to appear in Russian cuisine and was especially loved. At the end of the 17th century, it was served on the table of the Patriarch of Moscow and All Rus' Adrian, along with grain jelly: “cold” with full, cream or juice and “hot” with molasses or butter. (The fact that in this case we are talking specifically about jelly made from grain flour is confirmed by “]]> Russian Cookery ]]>” by Vasily Levshin.) Based on the recipe given by N. Yatsenkov, it can be assumed that initially cranberry jelly was prepared with rice starch . With the assimilation of potato starch into Russian cuisine, cranberry jelly began to be prepared on its basis. It is known that in 1829 “]]> potato cranberry jelly ]]>” was served to Pushkin. With the penetration of cranberry jelly into widespread folk life, it received the name “red” in contrast to “white” oatmeal.
This jelly could be served hot as a separate dish or chilled with milk/cream and sugar. According to Saltykov-Shchedrin, in St. Petersburg in the 1870s ]]> in the Maloyaroslavsky tavern ]]> they served “cranberry jelly with fullness.” Sometimes it was used as a gravy: in the magazine “Moskvityanin” for 1856, along with “various cold jelly with cream”, “boiled cod drenched in hot cranberry jelly with sugar” is mentioned.
Cranberry jelly became a link between jelly made from grain and potato flour, demonstrating the natural development of the Russian culinary tradition. On the one hand, cranberries are a sour berry, and the mealy jelly made from it was jelly in the original sense of the word. Cooking it with sugar reproduced the sweet and sour taste characteristic of oatmeal jelly with a full one. On the other hand, cranberry jelly belonged to a new variety of this dish - on starch, many of which will no longer be sour, but sweet. At the same time, “sweet jelly” as a special dish was already mentioned in “Domostroy” of the mid-16th century. What they were at that time is not known for certain, but it is very likely that this was the name given to grain jelly with sati or molasses.
Almond and milk jelly
Another popular type of jelly made with potato starch was almond jelly, which was made from almond milk. It is repeatedly mentioned in “]]> Summer of the Lord ]]>” (1927-1944) by Ivan Shmelev as a Lenten dish. In “]]> Moscow and Muscovites ]]>” Vladimir Gilyarovsky was “surrounded with almond jelly with almond milk” at a memorial dinner. Milk jelly was also prepared from cow's milk and cream with the addition of bitter almonds.
These recipes are close to grain jelly with milk, especially wheat. At the same time, the influence of blancmange, which was widespread in Russia since the end of the 18th century as a ceremonial dish, is obvious. Compare in “]]> Eugene Onegin ]]>”: “But in a bottle covered with tar, / Between the roast and the blancmange, / They are already carrying Tsimlyanskoe.” In Russian cookbooks ]]> the main difference ]]> between almond/milk jelly and blancmange was that the latter used fish glue or gelatin rather than potato starch.
In “]]> Painting of royal dishes ]]>” (1610-1613), compiled for the Polish prince Vladislav, it is said: “On a dish of white jelly, and in it a ladle of unleavened milk, a spoonful of cream.” It is tempting to see “white jelly” as oatmeal with milk, in accordance with popular usage. However, most likely we are talking about one of the variants of blancmange (for example, on rice starch), which at that time was popular in Europe among the upper classes of society. In the 1912 cookbook by Ekaterina Avdeeva and Nikolai Maslov “]]> white jelly ]]>” it is precisely milk based on potato starch that is named.
Kiseli in Soviet times
At the beginning of the 20th century, jelly in Russian cuisine was presented in all its diversity, including the most exotic options. The above-mentioned cookbook contains recipes not only for “melon” and “chocolate” jelly, but also ]]> sago jelly ]]> (a grain made from granular starch extracted from sago palms) with spices, which is recommended to be eaten “hot with raspberry jam "
In Soviet times, a break familiar from ]]> the history of grain wine ]]> occurred: if Ushakov’s explanatory dictionary (1935-1940) is still focused on the system of meanings of Imperial Russia, then Ozhegov’s dictionary (1949) records a ]]> break with Russian tradition ]] >: “a gelatinous food made from some kind of flour” turned into “a gelatinous liquid food” (my italics - M. M.).
In the bible of Soviet cooking, “The Book of Tasty and Healthy Food” (1939), jelly is presented quite fully, including almond and oatmeal (“Oatmeal jelly with milk”). They are suggested to be cooked “medium thick and thick” and served “hot and cold.” At the same time, recipes for berry and fruit jelly are given in the section of sweet dishes, oatmeal ended up in flour dishes along with dumplings and pasties, and pea jelly is not mentioned at all. In the same book of the 1952 edition, which is considered exemplary, almond jelly and oatmeal jelly were excluded, although the oatmeal itself remained and it was proposed to prepare something like salamata from it.
The destruction of a single class of dishes was accompanied by the gradual liquefaction of starch-based jelly, turning them into a drink. In “Kitchen on Stove and Primus” (1927) K.Ya. Dedrina gave a proportion of liquid and starch of 6×1, which corresponds to pre-revolutionary standards. In the “Book of Tasty and Healthy Food” of 1939 and 1952, a close ratio is given: two tablespoons of potato flour are placed on one glass of berries. In the same ]]> book of the 1987 edition ]]> two tablespoons of starch already account for four glasses of liquid.
By the end of the Soviet period, the idea of potato jelly was reduced to the modern level, and for centuries, oatmeal and pea jelly, beloved by the Russian people, were removed from culinary use. It got to the point that in 1992, the doctor ]]> Vladimir Izotov ]]> managed to patent a recipe for ordinary oatmeal jelly as a medicinal dish.
The originality of Russian jelly
The transformation of mealy jelly into a hot drink disrupted the natural relationship between Russian cuisine and the culinary traditions of other European nations. The resulting confusion is fully reflected in “]]> Culinary Dictionary ]]>” (2002, published posthumously) by William Pokhlebkin. He divided jelly into “Russian” (rye, oat, wheat and pea) and “berry-fruit”, which are supposedly “sweet dishes of Western European cuisine.” According to Pokhlebkin, it is customary to prepare thick jelly in Western Europe, but in Russian cuisine, medium-thick jelly is supposedly accepted. The triumph of half-knowledge is the suggestion to eat lean pea jelly with meat broth or gravy.
Gelatinous dishes like jelly are widespread in Western European and world cooking in general. A striking example is rice pudding, which is found in various forms around the world. However, the similarity of recipes is equally characteristic of oatmeal, pea, milk and berry-fruit jelly, which is natural with close trade and cultural exchange.
A fairly accurate analogue of jelly made from grain flour can be found in British cuisine of the 17th-19th centuries - ]]> flummery ]]> . This dessert was prepared from soaked oat or wheat seeds, but without fermentation, and served with honey, cream and other additives. The presence of a fermentation stage in the Russian tradition is noteworthy, since our cuisine in general is characterized by a sour taste. Flummery is considered a type of pudding, of which there are a great variety in English cuisine. Also in Great Britain there was an analogue of our salamata - ]]> gruel ]]> . It was this dish that formed the basis of the diet of the workhouse inhabitants in the novel “Oliver Twist” by Charles Dickens.
The German equivalent of oatmeal jelly, Haferschleim, has already been mentioned. In addition, in German and Danish cuisine there is a dish completely similar to jelly made with potato starch: ]]> him. rote Grütze, date. rødgrød ]]> - literally “red cereal”. This sweet dessert with red summer berries was originally prepared from grain cereals, then potato starch was used as a thickener. Rote Grütze is also served chilled with milk or cream.
In French cuisine, the closest thing to starch-based jelly are berry-fruit jellies, which were prepared with the addition of fish glue and later gelatin. In the “Almanac of Gastronomers” (1852-1855) by Ignatius Radetzky, which presents Russian-French cuisine of the mid-19th century, the names of jelly are duplicated in French as “gelèe (kissel)”. At the same time, Radetzky does not mix these dishes: the book contains recipes for raspberry and cranberry jelly and jelly from the same berries, and also separately presents similar recipes for almond jelly and almond blancmange.
Similar to icy jelly on potato starch is ]]> Turkish delicacy ]]> lukum (Turkish delight), which is prepared on starch with rose water, mastic tree resin or fruit juices as the main flavor essences. An analogue of pea jelly is easily found in Italian cuisine - it is polenta made from corn flour (mamaliga in Eastern Roman countries).
In the Russian culinary tradition of the 19th century, jelly was perceived as a unique dish and was not mixed with related jellies, blancmange, puddings and other foreign dishes. There is no reason to single out potato starch jelly from this series as a “dish of Western European cuisine.” Starch (rice, potato, maize) was used as a thickener in many European countries, and Russian cuisine, with its assimilation, kept pace with the times, maintaining its originality.
Kissels in modern Russian cuisine
Nowadays, the ironic saying “there is jelly seven miles away” (that is, going on a long journey for what is at hand) can be safely used in the literal sense. Even liquid berry jelly is rarely found in cafes and restaurants, not to mention other varieties of this dish.
In a number of establishments, oatmeal and/or pea jelly appeared thanks to Maxim Syrnikov. These are the Russian cuisine store “Dobryanka” in Novosibirsk, the Moscow restaurant “Voskresenye” and “Russian Village” in Vladimir. In St. Petersburg, oatmeal jelly can be found at the Pomorsky restaurant.
Of particular interest are the author's versions of traditional Russian jelly. Chef and co-owner of the Moscow restaurant Delicatessen Ivan Shishkin successfully ]]> modernized the recipe for pea jelly ]]> : “I brought it almost to perfection, although it only contains pea flour, water and vegetable oil. But I smoke the flour, cook the vegetable broth, use marmite (a British paste made from yeast extract with a strong salty taste - M.M.) for the sauce, which gives the dish, excuse me, the taste of meat. I fry pickled cucumbers in a special way, and make decorations from fresh shoots.” Shishkin presented his own pea and oat jelly at the Moscow gastronomic festival Omnivore 2013 and subsequently introduced pea jelly into the spring 2014 menu. The Lenten 2014 menu of the St. Petersburg restaurant of new Russian cuisine “CoCoCo” also included a signature pea jelly from the establishment’s chef Igor Grishechkin - with “smoked carrot puree, fried onions and Borodino bread chips.” Unfortunately, the history of rethinking jelly in modern Russian cooking is limited to these two examples.
]]> Modern recipes for oatmeal and pea jelly ]]> .
]]> Modern recipes for jelly made with potato starch ]]> .
Maxim Marusenkov
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